Getting Started
The period from 1815 to 1914 began with European powers attempting to restore stability and order after the upheaval of the Napoleonic Wars. However, this conservative order was soon challenged by powerful new forces. This chapter explains the context in which the ideologies of nationalism and imperialism emerged, transforming the map of Europe and escalating global competition among the Great Powers.
What You Should Be Able to Do
Explain how the breakdown of the old diplomatic order created opportunities for new nations to form.
Analyze the various motives that drove the intensification of European imperialism.
Describe the connection between cultural shifts and the political developments of the era.
Explain the context that led to the rise of nationalism and imperialism between 1815 and 1914.
Key Developments & Analysis
This era was defined by a chain of causes and effects that dismantled the old European order and created a new, more competitive international system.
Causes of Political & Ideological Change
Breakdown of the Concert of Europe: The Concert of Europe was a system established by the Great Powers after 1815 to maintain international stability, a balance of power, and the conservative political order. Its gradual breakdown, particularly after the Crimean War (1853-1856), weakened the collective agreement among powers to suppress nationalist movements, creating a political vacuum.
Rise of Nationalism: The most disruptive new ideology of the era was nationalism, the belief that a people sharing a common language, culture, and history are a distinct nation and should have their own sovereign state. This idea directly threatened the existence of multi-ethnic empires (like Austria and the Ottoman Empire) and inspired movements to unite fragmented peoples (like the Germans and Italians).
New Motives for Global Control: A variety of new motives drove an intensified period of global expansion known as imperialism—the policy of extending a nation's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Industrialization created demands for raw materials and new markets, while rising nationalism fueled a competitive drive for prestige and strategic advantage through overseas colonies.
Cultural Tensions and Realism: European culture expressed a growing tension between subjectivity (seen in Romanticism's focus on individual emotion) and objectivity. This led to the rise of Realism, an artistic and literary movement that sought to depict life as it was, including its harsh realities. In politics, this translated to Realpolitik, a pragmatic and power-oriented approach to diplomacy that prioritized state interests over traditional ethics or ideology.
Effects & Impacts of These Changes
Immediate Effects: The Unification of Italy and Germany
The collapse of the Concert of Europe's authority directly enabled the unification of Italy (c. 1861-1871) and Germany (1871).
Nationalist leaders like Camillo di Cavour in Italy and Otto von Bismarck in Germany skillfully used diplomacy, war, and the principles of Realpolitik to create powerful new nation-states, fundamentally altering the European balance of power.
Long-Term Impacts: Intensified Global Competition
The newly unified states, especially Germany, quickly became industrial and military powerhouses, challenging the established dominance of Great Britain and France.
This new dynamic, combined with the motives for imperialism, led to an era of "New Imperialism" in the late 19th century, where European powers scrambled to claim territory in Africa and Asia.
This intensification of European global control dramatically increased tensions among the Great Powers, creating a web of rivalries and alliances that would eventually contribute to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
Data & Organization Tools
Timeline of Key Developments
| Date(s) | Event | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 1815 | Congress of Vienna | Establishes the Concert of Europe to create a conservative order and balance of power. |
| 1848 | Revolutions of 1848 | Widespread liberal and nationalist uprisings challenge the conservative order across Europe. |
| 1853–1856 | Crimean War | Shatters the cooperation of the Concert of Europe by pitting Great Powers against each other. |
| c. 1861–1871 | Unification of Italy | A new nation-state is formed, inspired by nationalism and enabled by strategic diplomacy. |
| 1871 | Unification of Germany | The creation of a powerful German Empire dramatically alters the European balance of power. |
| c. 1880–1914 | Age of New Imperialism | European powers engage in an intense scramble for overseas colonies, increasing global tensions. |
Evidence Bank
Concert of Europe: The post-Napoleonic system of diplomacy where the Great Powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, Great Britain, and later France) cooperated to maintain peace and suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions. Its failure was a precondition for the unifications of Italy and Germany.
Nationalism: The powerful ideology asserting that a nation—a group with a shared identity—should have its own independent state. It was the primary driver behind the creation of Italy and Germany and a major source of conflict in multi-ethnic empires.
Unification of Italy: The political and social movement (Risorgimento) that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy. It demonstrated the power of nationalism to create new states.
Unification of Germany: The process, masterminded by Prussia's Otto von Bismarck, of building a German nation-state from numerous smaller German-speaking states. The new German Empire became Europe's dominant land power.
New Imperialism: The late 19th-century wave of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and Japan. It was characterized by a pursuit of direct political and economic control over territories in Africa and Asia, driven by a mix of economic, political, and cultural motives.
Realism: A mid-19th-century cultural movement in art and literature that rejected Romanticism's idealism in favor of depicting the unvarnished, objective realities of modern life and society. This focus on objective reality paralleled the rise of Realpolitik in diplomacy.
Skill Snapshots
Causation: The breakdown of the Concert of Europe → created a power vacuum that → allowed for the successful unification of Germany and Italy.
Comparison: While both Italy and Germany unified based on nationalism, Germany's unification was primarily driven by Prussian military and industrial might, whereas Italy's was a more complex process involving diplomacy and foreign assistance.
CCOT: The period began with a baseline of Great Powers cooperating to maintain a conservative, multi-ethnic imperial order (c. 1815). A key change was the rise of nationalism, which created new, powerful nation-states. A key continuity was the persistent competition for power and influence among European states, which simply shifted from continental disputes to global imperial rivalries.
Common Misconceptions & Clarifications
Misconception: The Concert of Europe was a formal, permanent alliance.
- Clarification: It was a flexible system of consultation and agreement among the Great Powers, not a rigid treaty. Its effectiveness depended on the willingness of its members to cooperate.
Misconception: Nationalism was always a force for liberal democracy.
- Clarification: While some nationalists were liberals, nationalism was often authoritarian and conservative, used by leaders like Bismarck to unify the state around a powerful central government and military.
Misconception: "Germany" and "Italy" existed as unified countries before the 1860s.
- Clarification: Before unification, those names referred to geographic regions composed of dozens of independent kingdoms, duchies, and city-states.
Misconception: Imperialism in the late 19th century was the same as earlier colonialism.
- Clarification: "New Imperialism" was more intense, rapid, and focused on direct political and economic control over vast territories, whereas earlier colonialism often centered on coastal trading posts and limited settlement.
One-Paragraph Summary
The 19th century witnessed the dramatic unraveling of the conservative order established in 1815. The system designed to maintain stability, the Concert of Europe, ultimately failed, opening the door for the era's most potent ideology: nationalism. This force fueled the unifications of Italy and Germany, creating powerful new nation-states that fundamentally altered the continent's balance of power. Driven by a mix of national pride, economic needs, and a pragmatic political culture of Realism, these European powers then turned their rivalry outward. They engaged in an unprecedented wave of "New Imperialism," carving up Africa and Asia and intensifying the global tensions that would set the stage for the conflicts of the 20th century.